νεναη
Hackers [draft] [#digitalkeywords]
“Hacking, across its various manifestations, can be seen as a site where craft and craftiness converge.”
The following is a draft of an essay, eventually for publication as part of the Digital Keywords project (Ben Peters, ed). This and other drafts will be circulated on Culture Digitally, and we invite anyone to provide comment, criticism, or suggestion in the comment space below. We ask that you please do honor that it is being offered in draft form — both in your comments, which we hope will be constructive in tone, and in any use of the document: you may share the link to this essay as widely as you like, but please do not quote from this draft without the author’s permission. (TLG)
Hackers — Gabriella Coleman, McGill University
The Culture vs. the Cultures of Hacking
the 1950s a small group of MIT-based computer enthusiasts, many of them model train builders/tinkerers, adopted the term “hacker” to differentiate their freewheeling attitude from those of their peers. While most MIT engineers relied on convention to deliver proven results, hackers courted contingency, disregarding norms or rules they thought likely to stifle creative invention. These hackers, like the engineers they distinguished themselves from, were primarily students, but a handful of outsiders, some of them pre-teens, were also deemed to possess the desire and intellectual chops required to hack and adopted into the informal club; In the eyes of this group, hackers re-purposed tools in the service of beauty and utility while those students “who insisted on studying for courses”[1] were considered “tools” themselves.
Since this coinage sixty years ago, the range of activity wedded to the term “hacking” has expanded exponentially. Bloggers share tips about “life hacks” (tricks for managing time or overcoming the challenges of everyday life); corporations, governments, and NGOs host “hackathon” coding sprints[2]; and the “hacktivist”, once a marginal political actor, now lies at the center of geopolitical life.[3] Since the early 1980s, the hacker archetype has also become a staple of our mass media diet. Rarely does a day pass without an article detailing a massive security breach at the hands of shadowy hackers, who have ransacked corporate servers to pilfer personal and lucrative data. Alongside these newspaper headlines, hackers often feature prominently in popular film, magazines, literature, and TV.[4]
Despite this pervasiveness, academic books on the subject of hacking are scant. To date the most substantive historical accounts have been penned by journalists, while academics have written a handful of sociological, anthropological and philosophical books -typically with a media studies orientation.[5] Surveying the popular, journalistic, and academic material on hackers, it is clear that few words in the English language evoke such a bundle of simultaneously negative and positive-even sexy-connotations: mysterious, criminal, impulsive, brilliant, chauvinistic, white knight, digital robin hood, young, white, male, politically naïve, libertarian, wizardly, entitled, brilliant, skilled, mystical, monastic, creepy, creative, obsessive, methodological, quirky, a-social, pathological.
Some of these associations carry with them a kernel of truth, especially in North America and Europe: conferences are populated by seas of mostly white men; their professionalizable skills, which encompass the distinct technical arts of programming, security research, hardware building, and system/network administration, land them mostly in a middle class or higher tax bracket (they are among the few professionals who can scramble up corporate ladders without a college degree); and their much vaunted libertarianism does, indeed, thrive in particular regions like Silicon Valley, the global start-up capital of the world, and select projects like the cryptocurrency Bitcoin.
Yet many other popular and entrenched ideas about hacking are more fable than reality. Hackers, so often tagged as asocial lone wolves, are in fact highly social, as evidenced by the hundreds of hacker or developer cons which typically repeat annually and boast impressive attendance records.[6] Another misconception concerns the core political sensibility of the hacker. Many articles universalize a libertarianism to the entirety of hacking practitioners in the west. Whether appraising them positively as freedom fighters or deriding them as naïve miscreants, journalists and academics often pin the origins of their practice on an anti-authoritarian distrust of government combined with an ardent support for free market capitalism. This posited libertarianism is most often mentioned in passing as simple fact or marshaled to explain everything from their (supposedly naive) behavior to the nature of their political activity (or inactivity).[7]
What is the source of this association, and why has it proved so tenacious? The reasons are complex, but we can identify at least two clear contributing factors. First, many hackers, especially in the west, do demonstrate an enthusiastic commitment to anti-authoritarianism and a variety of civil liberties. Most notably, hackers advocate privacy and free speech rights-a propensity erroneously (if perhaps understandably) flattened into a perception of libertarianism. While these sensibilities are wholly compatible and hold affinities with a libertarian agenda, the two are by no means co-constitutive, nor does one necessarily follow from the other.[8]
The second source propping up the myth of the libertarian hacker concerns the framing and uptake of published accounts. Certain, depictions of particular aspects of hacking or specific geographic regions wherein libertarianism does, indeed, dominate are routinely represented as and subsequently taken up as indicative of the entire hacker culture.[9] This is only magnified by the fact that Silicon Valley technologists, many who promulgate what Richard Barbrook has named the “Californian ideology”-“a mix of cybernetics, free market economics, and counter-culture,” are so well resourced that their activities and values, however specific, circulate in the public more pervasively than those at work in other domains of hacker practice.[10] There is no question the California ideology remains salient[11] – but it by no means qualifies as a singular hacker worldview homogeneous across regions, generations, projects, and styles of hacking.
This disproportionately-fortified stereotype of the libertarian hacker, along with the paucity of historical studies and contemporary research regarding other values at work in hacking, forms the terrain from which scholars of hackers currently work and write. But this seems, slowly, to be changing. Increasingly, scholars are tracing the genealogies of hacking practices, ethics, and values to heterodox, multiplicitous origins.[12] For instance, the inception of the “hacker underground”-an archipelago of tightknit crews who embrace transgression, enact secrecy, and excel in the art of computer intrusion-can be traced to the phone phreaks: proto-hackers who, operating both independently and collectively, made it their mission to covertly explore phone systems for a variety of reasons which rarely involved capital gain.[13] Conversely, “free software” hackers are far more transparent in their constitution and activities as they utilize legal mechanisms which aim to guarantee perpetual access to their creations. Meanwhile, “open source” hackers, close cousins to their equivalents in the free software movement, downplay the language of rights emphasizing methodological benefits and freedom of choice in how to use software over the perpetual freedom of the software itself; as a result, open source ideology maintains an affinity with neoliberal logics, while free software runs directly against this current.[14] Another engagem
It is important to emphasize, however, that while the existence of recursive publics or free spaces do not, in and of themselves, guarantee the emergence of hacker political sensibilities, they remain nevertheless vital stage settings for the possibility of activism but regional differences figure prominently. For instance, much of the hacker-based political activism emanates from Europe. Compared to their North American counterparts (especially those in the United States), European hackers tend to tout their political commitments in easily recognizable ways, often aligning themselves with politically-mandated hacker groups and spaces.[33] The continent boasts dozens of autonomous, anti-capitalist technology collectives, from Spain to Croatia, and has a developed activist practice which fuses art with hacking.[34] One of the oldest collectives, the German-based Chaos Computer Club (established in 1984), has worked to shape technology policy in dialogue with government for over a decade.[35] A great majority of the participants populating the insurgent protest ensemble Anonymous are European.[36] Perhaps most tellingly, the first robust, formalized, geek political organization, the Pirate Party, was founded in Sweden.[37]
Not all hackers are seeking, however, to promote social transformation. But we can nevertheless consider how many of their legal and technical artifacts catalyze enduring and pervasive political changes regardless of intent. Craft autonomy figures heavily in this unexpected dynamic, one which can be observed, perhaps most clearly, in the production of Free and Open Source Software (F/OSS). Productive autonomy and access to the underlying structures of code are enshrined values in this community, and politics seems to be a natural outcome of such commitments. Irrespective of personal motivation or a project’s stated political position, F/OSS has functioned as a sort of icon, a living example from which other actors in fields like law, journalism and education have made cases for open access. To give but one example, Free Software licensing directly inspired the chartering of the Creative Commons non-profit, which has developed a suite of open access licenses for modes of cultural production which extend far beyond the purview of hacking.[38] Additionally, F/OSS practices have enabled radical thinkers and activists to showcase and advocate the vitality, persistence and possibility of non-alienated labor.[39]
Like F/OSS hackers, those in the underground also strive for and enact craft autonomy with interesting political effects-but here autonomy is understood and enacted differently. Often referred to as blackhats, these hackers pursue forbidden knowledge. While often lured by the thrills offered by subversion and transgression alone, their acts also serve pedagogical purposes, and many have emerged from these illegal, underground into the realm of respected security research. Their hands-on experiences locating vulnerabilities and sleuthing systems are easily transferrable into efforts to fortify-rather than penetrate-technical systems. Predictably, the establishment of a profitable security industry is seen by some underground hackers as a threat to their autonomy: Some critics deride their fellow hackers for selling out to the man.[40] A much larger number don’t have a problem with the aim of securitization per se, but nevertheless chastise those attracted to the field by lucrative salaries rather than a passionate allegiance to quality. In one piece declaring the death of the hacker underground, a hacker bemoans: “unfortunately, fewer and fewer people are willing, or indeed capable of following this path, of pursuing that ever-unattainable goal of technical perfection. Instead, the current trend is to pursue the lowest common denominator, to do the least amount of work to gain the most fame, respect or money.”[41]
A major, and perhaps unsurprising motivator of hacker politicization comes in the wake of state intervention. The most potent periods of hacker politicization (at least in the American context) are undoubtedly those following arrests of underground hackers like Craig Neidorf[42] or Kevin Mitnick.[43] The criminalization of software can also do the trick; hacker-cryptopapher Phil Zimmerman broke numerous munitions and intellectual property laws when he released PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) encryption to the world-a fact governments did not fail to notice or act upon.[44] But this act of civil disobedience helped engender the now firmly-established hacker notion that software deserves free speech protections.[45]
In many such instances, the pushback against criminalization spills beyond hacker concerns, engaging questions of civil liberties more generally. Activists outside the hacker discipline are inevitably drawn in, and the political language deployed by them results in a sort of positive feedback loop for the hackers initially activated. We saw this precise pattern with the release and attempted suppression of DeCSS, a short program which could be used to circumvent copy and regional access controls on DVDs. In the United States, hackers who shared or published this code were sued under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, and its author was subsequently arrested in Norway. State criminalization led to a surge of protest activity among hackers across Europe and North America as they insisted upon free speech rights to write and release code undisputality cementing the association between free speech and code. As alliances were forged with civil liberties groups, lawyers, and librarians, what is now popularly known as the “digital rights movement” was more fully constituted.[46]
ENDNOTES
1. Levy, Steven Hackers. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, 2010, p. 10
2. DiSalvo, Carl and Melissa Gregg. “The Trouble With White Hats.” The New Inquiry, November 21, 2013.
3. Beyer, Jessica L. Expect Us: Online Communities and Political Mobilization. Oxford_; New York: Oxford University Press, 2014; Jordan, Tim, and Paul Taylor. Hacktivism and Cyberwars: Rebels with a Cause?. Routledge, 2004; Coleman, Gabriella. Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous. London_; Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2014; Sauter, Molly. The Coming Swarm: DDOS Actions, Hacktivism, and Civil Disobedience on the Internet. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
4. Alper, Meryl. “‘Can Our Kids Hack It With Computers?’ Constructing Youth Hackers in Family Computing Magazines.” International Journal of Communication. N, no. 8 (2014): 673-98.
5. For a history of phone phreaking see Lapsley, Phil. Exploding the Phone: The Untold Story of the Teenagers and Outlaws Who Hacked Ma Bell, 2013; for a history of the first coordinate state crackdowns against the American black hats see Sterling, Bruce. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier. New York: Bantam Books, 1992. The history of the intersection between hacking and cryptography has been written by Greenberg, Andy. This Machine Kills Secrets: How WikiLeakers, Cypherpunks, and Hacktivists Aim to Free the World’s Information. New York: Dutton Adult, 2012.Finally the classic account on the birth of university based hacking and early hardware hacking, see Steven Levy, ibid. For academic accounts also see: Jordan, Tim, and Paul Taylor. Hacktivism and Cyberwars: Rebels with a Cause?. Routledge, 2004; Thomas, Douglas. Hacker Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002; Wark, McKenzie. A Hacker Manifesto. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004; Kelty, Christopher M. Two Bits: The Cultural Significance of Free Software. Durham: Duke University Press, 2008; and Coleman, Gabriella. Coding Freedom: The Ethics and Aesthetics of Hacking. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.
6. Coleman, Gabriella. “The Hacker Conference: A Ritual Condensation and Celebration of a Lifeworld.” Anthropological Quarterly 83, no. 1 (2010): 47-72.
7. Borsook, Paulina. Cyberselfish: A Critical Romp through the Terribly Libertarian Culture of High Tech. PublicAffairs, 2000.
8. This is one but many examples where civil liberties is equated with libertarians but I feel like a jerk calling people out: Schulte, Stephanie, and Bret Schulte. “Muckraking in the Digital Age: Hacker Journalism and Cyber Activism in Legacy Media.” NMEDIAC, The Journal Of New Media And Culture 9, no. 1 (February 25, 2014).
9. Turner, Fred. From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
10. Barbrook, R, and A Cameron. “The California Ideology.” Science as Culture, no. 26 (1996): 44-72.
11. Marwick, Alice E. Status Update: Celebrity, Publicity, and Branding in the Social Media Age. Yale University Press, 2013 and Morozov, Evgeny. To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism. PublicAffairs, 2013.
12. Jordan, Tim. Hacking: Digital Media and Technological Determinism. Cambridge, UK; Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2008; Coleman, Gabriella, and Alex Golub. “Hacker Practice.” Anthropological Theory 8, no. 3 (2008): 255-77.
13. Lapsley, Ibid.
14. Berry, David. Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source. London: Pluto Press, 2008.
15. Greenberg, ibid.
16. Sennett, Richard. The Craftsman. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.
17. Hannemyr, Gisle. “Technology and Pleasure: Considering Hacking Constructive.” First Monday 4, no. 2 (February 1, 1999).
18. For an in-depth account of how these spaces function pedagogically, Schrock, Andrew Richard. “‘Education in Disguise’: Culture of a Hacker and Maker Space.” InterActions: UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies 10, no. 1 (January 1, 2014).
19. O’Neil, Mathieu. Cyberchiefs: Autonomy and Authority in Online Tribes. London; New York: New York: Pluto Press, 2009; Coleman, Gabriella. Coding Freedom: The Ethics and Aesthetics of Hacking. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.
20. Montfort, Nick. “Obfuscated Code.” In Software Studies a Lexicon, edited by Matthew Fuller. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008.
21. See “Codes of Value” section in Coleman, ibid; and also Goriunova, Olga, ed. Fun and Software: Exploring Pleasure, Paradox and Pain in Computing. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
22. Orr, Julian E. Talking about Machines: An Ethnography of a Modern Job. Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1996.
23. See, for example, Takhteyev, Yuri. Coding Places: Software Practice in a South American City. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2012; and Chan, Anita Say. Networking Peripheries: Technological Futures and the Myth of Digital Universalism. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2014.
24. Sewell Jr., William H. Logics of History: Social Theory and Social Transformation. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 2005.
25. Wark, ibid.
26. Delfanti, Alessandro and Johan Soderberg. “Hacking Hacked! The Life Cycles of Digital Innovation.” Science, Technology and Human Values, Forthcoming.
27. Tate, Ryan. “Google Couldn’t Kill 20 Percent Time Even If It Wanted To.” Wired, August 21, 2013.
28. Lindtner, Silvia, Li, David. “Created in China.” Interactions Interactions 19, no. 6 (2012): 18.
29. [LEFT BLANK] ****
30. Kelty, ibid.
31. Wark, ibid.
32. Polletta, F. “‘Free Spaces’ in Collective Action.” Theory and Society 28, no. 1 (1999): 1-38.
33. Bazzichelli, Tatiana. Networked Disruption: Rethinking Oppositions in Art, Hacktivism and the Business of Social Networking. Aarhus N, Denmark: Aarhus Universitet Multimedieuddannelsen, 2013.
34. Maxigas. “Hacklabs and Hackerspaces – Tracing Two Genealogies.” Journal of Peer Production, no. 2. Accessed October 2, 2014.
35. Kubitschko, Sebastian. “Hacking Authority.” edited by Craig Calhoun and Richard Sennett. New York: NYU Press, Forthcoming.
36. Coleman, Gabriella. Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous. London; Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2014.
37. Burkart, Patrick. Pirate Politics: The New Information Policy Contests. The MIT Press, 2014.
38. Coleman, Gabriella, and Mako Hill. “How Free Became Open and Everything Else Under the Sun.” MC Journal 7, no. 3 (July 2004).
39. Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire. New York: Penguin Books, 2005.
40. Anonymous. “Lines in the Sand: Which Side Are You On in the Hacker Class War.” Phrack Inc. 0x0e, no. 0x44 (April 2012).
41. Anonymous. “The Underground Myth.” Phrack Inc. 0x0c, no. 0x41 (November 2008).
42. Sterling, Ibid.
43. Thomas, Ibid.
44. Levy, Steven. Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government Saving Privacy in the Digital Age. 1st edition. London: Penguin Books, 2001.
45. Coleman, Gabriella. “Code Is Speech: Legal Tinkering, Expertise, and Protest among Free and Open Source Software Developers.” Cultural Anthropology 24, no. 3 (November 2, 2012): 420-54.
“Hacking, across its various manifestations, can be seen as a site where craft and craftiness converge.”
The following is a draft of an essay, eventually for publication as part of the Digital Keywords project (Ben Peters, ed). This and other drafts will be circulated on Culture Digitally, and we invite anyone to provide comment, criticism, or suggestion in the comment space below. We ask that you please do honor that it is being offered in draft form — both in your comments, which we hope will be constructive in tone, and in any use of the document: you may share the link to this essay as widely as you like, but please do not quote from this draft without the author’s permission. (TLG)
Hackers — Gabriella Coleman, McGill University
The Culture vs. the Cultures of Hacking
In the 1950s a small group of MIT-based computer enthusiasts, many of them model train builders/tinkerers, adopted the term “hacker” to differentiate their freewheeling attitude from those of their peers. While most MIT engineers relied on convention to deliver proven results, hackers courted contingency, disregarding norms or rules they thought likely to stifle creative invention. These hackers, like the engineers they distinguished themselves from, were primarily students, but a handful of outsiders, some of them pre-teens, were also deemed to possess the desire and intellectual chops required to hack and adopted into the informal club; In the eyes of this group, hackers re-purposed tools in the service of beauty and utility while those students “who insisted on studying for courses”[1] were considered “tools” themselves.
Since this coinage sixty years ago, the range of activity wedded to the term “hacking” has expanded exponentially. Bloggers share tips about “life hacks” (tricks for managing time or overcoming the challenges of everyday life); corporations, governments, and NGOs host “hackathon” coding sprints[2]; and the “hacktivist”, once a marginal political actor, now lies at the center of geopolitical life.[3] Since the early 1980s, the hacker archetype has also become a staple of our mass media diet. Rarely does a day pass without an article detailing a massive security breach at the hands of shadowy hackers, who have ransacked corporate servers to pilfer personal and lucrative data. Alongside these newspaper headlines, hackers often feature prominently in popular film, magazines, literature, and TV.[4]
Despite this pervasiveness, academic books on the subject of hacking are scant. To date the most substantive historical accounts have been penned by journalists, while academics have written a handful of sociological, anthropological and philosophical books -typically with a media studies orientation.[5] Surveying the popular, journalistic, and academic material on hackers, it is clear that few words in the English language evoke such a bundle of simultaneously negative and positive-even sexy-connotations: mysterious, criminal, impulsive, brilliant, chauvinistic, white knight, digital robin hood, young, white, male, politically naïve, libertarian, wizardly, entitled, brilliant, skilled, mystical, monastic, creepy, creative, obsessive, methodological, quirky, a-social, pathological.
Some of these associations carry with them a kernel of truth, especially in North America and Europe: conferences are populated by seas of mostly white men; their professionalizable skills, which encompass the distinct technical arts of programming, security research, hardware building, and system/network administration, land them mostly in a middle class or higher tax bracket (they are among the few professionals who can scramble up corporate ladders without a college degree); and their much vaunted libertarianism does, indeed, thrive in particular regions like Silicon Valley, the global start-up capital of the world, and select projects like the cryptocurrency Bitcoin.
Yet many other popular and entrenched ideas about hacking are more fable than reality. Maxigas. “Hacklabs and Hackerspaces – Tracing Two Genealogies.” Journal of Peer Production, no. 2. Accessed October 2, 2014.
Montfort, Nick. “Obfuscated Code.” In Software Studies a Lexicon, edited by Matthew Fuller. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008.
Morozov, Evgeny. To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism. PublicAffairs, 2013.
O’Neil, Mathieu. Cyberchiefs: Autonomy and Authority in Online Tribes. London_; New York_: New York: Pluto Press, 2009.
Orr, Julian E. Talking about Machines: An Ethnography of a Modern Job. Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1996.
Polletta, F. “‘Free Spaces’ in Collective Action.” Theory and Society 28, no. 1 (1999): 1-38.
Postigo, Hector. The Digital Rights Movement: The Role of Technology in Subverting Digital Copyright. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2012.
Sauter, Molly. The Coming Swarm: DDOS Actions, Hacktivism, and Civil Disobedience on the Internet. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
Schrock, Andrew Richard. “‘Education in Disguise’: Culture of a Hacker and Maker Space.” InterActions: UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies 10, no. 1 (January 1, 2014). http://escholarship.org/uc/item/0js1n1qg.
Schulte, Stephanie, and Bret Schulte. “Muckraking in the Digital Age: Hacker Journalism and Cyber Activism in Legacy Media.” NMEDIAC, The Journal Of New Media And Culture 9, no. 1 (February 25, 2014).
Sennett, Richard. The Craftsman. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.
Sewell Jr., William H. Logics of History: Social Theory and Social Transformation. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 2005.
Sterling, Bruce. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier. New York: Bantam Books, 1992.
Takhteyev, Yuri. Coding Places: Software Practice in a South American City. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2012.
Tate, Ryan. “Google Couldn’t Kill 20 Percent Time Even If It Wanted To.” Wired, August 21, 2013.
Thomas, Douglas. Hacker Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.
Turner, Fred. From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
Wark, McKenzie. A Hacker Manifesto. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
 |
| Editing by Rajesh Sunuwar |
The following is a draft of an essay, eventually for publication as part of the Digital Keywords project (Ben Peters, ed). This and other drafts will be circulated on Culture Digitally, and we invite anyone to provide comment, criticism, or suggestion in the comment space below. We ask that you please do honor that it is being offered in draft form — both in your comments, which we hope will be constructive in tone, and in any use of the document: you may share the link to this essay as widely as you like, but please do not quote from this draft without the author’s permission. (TLG)
Hackers — Gabriella Coleman, McGill University
The Culture vs. the Cultures of Hacking
 |
| in |
Since this coinage sixty years ago, the range of activity wedded to the term “hacking” has expanded exponentially. Bloggers share tips about “life hacks” (tricks for managing time or overcoming the challenges of everyday life); corporations, governments, and NGOs host “hackathon” coding sprints[2]; and the “hacktivist”, once a marginal political actor, now lies at the center of geopolitical life.[3] Since the early 1980s, the hacker archetype has also become a staple of our mass media diet. Rarely does a day pass without an article detailing a massive security breach at the hands of shadowy hackers, who have ransacked corporate servers to pilfer personal and lucrative data. Alongside these newspaper headlines, hackers often feature prominently in popular film, magazines, literature, and TV.[4]
Despite this pervasiveness, academic books on the subject of hacking are scant. To date the most substantive historical accounts have been penned by journalists, while academics have written a handful of sociological, anthropological and philosophical books -typically with a media studies orientation.[5] Surveying the popular, journalistic, and academic material on hackers, it is clear that few words in the English language evoke such a bundle of simultaneously negative and positive-even sexy-connotations: mysterious, criminal, impulsive, brilliant, chauvinistic, white knight, digital robin hood, young, white, male, politically naïve, libertarian, wizardly, entitled, brilliant, skilled, mystical, monastic, creepy, creative, obsessive, methodological, quirky, a-social, pathological.
What is the source of this association, and why has it proved so tenacious? The reasons are complex, but we can identify at least two clear contributing factors. First, many hackers, especially in the west, do demonstrate an enthusiastic commitment to anti-authoritarianism and a variety of civil liberties. Most notably, hackers advocate privacy and free speech rights-a propensity erroneously (if perhaps understandably) flattened into a perception of libertarianism. While these sensibilities are wholly compatible and hold affinities with a libertarian agenda, the two are by no means co-constitutive, nor does one necessarily follow from the other.[8]
The second source propping up the myth of the libertarian hacker concerns the framing and uptake of published accounts. Certain, depictions of particular aspects of hacking or specific geographic regions wherein libertarianism does, indeed, dominate are routinely represented as and subsequently taken up as indicative of the entire hacker culture.[9] This is only magnified by the fact that Silicon Valley technologists, many who promulgate what Richard Barbrook has named the “Californian ideology”-“a mix of cybernetics, free market economics, and counter-culture,” are so well resourced that their activities and values, however specific, circulate in the public more pervasively than those at work in other domains of hacker practice.[10] There is no question the California ideology remains salient[11] – but it by no means qualifies as a singular hacker worldview homogeneous across regions, generations, projects, and styles of hacking.
This disproportionately-fortified stereotype of the libertarian hacker, along with the paucity of historical studies and contemporary research regarding other values at work in hacking, forms the terrain from which scholars of hackers currently work and write. But this seems, slowly, to be changing. Increasingly, scholars are tracing the genealogies of hacking practices, ethics, and values to heterodox, multiplicitous origins.[12] For instance, the inception of the “hacker underground”-an archipelago of tightknit crews who embrace transgression, enact secrecy, and excel in the art of computer intrusion-can be traced to the phone phreaks: proto-hackers who, operating both independently and collectively, made it their mission to covertly explore phone systems for a variety of reasons which rarely involved capital gain.[13] Conversely, “free software” hackers are far more transparent in their constitution and activities as they utilize legal mechanisms which aim to guarantee perpetual access to their creations. Meanwhile, “open source” hackers, close cousins to their equivalents in the free software movement, downplay the language of rights emphasizing methodological benefits and freedom of choice in how to use software over the perpetual freedom of the software itself; as a result, open source ideology maintains an affinity with neoliberal logics, while free software runs directly against this current.[14] Another engagem
Not all hackers are seeking, however, to promote social transformation. But we can nevertheless consider how many of their legal and technical artifacts catalyze enduring and pervasive political changes regardless of intent. Craft autonomy figures heavily in this unexpected dynamic, one which can be observed, perhaps most clearly, in the production of Free and Open Source Software (F/OSS). Productive autonomy and access to the underlying structures of code are enshrined values in this community, and politics seems to be a natural outcome of such commitments. Irrespective of personal motivation or a project’s stated political position, F/OSS has functioned as a sort of icon, a living example from which other actors in fields like law, journalism and education have made cases for open access. To give but one example, Free Software licensing directly inspired the chartering of the Creative Commons non-profit, which has developed a suite of open access licenses for modes of cultural production which extend far beyond the purview of hacking.[38] Additionally, F/OSS practices have enabled radical thinkers and activists to showcase and advocate the vitality, persistence and possibility of non-alienated labor.[39]
Like F/OSS hackers, those in the underground also strive for and enact craft autonomy with interesting political effects-but here autonomy is understood and enacted differently. Often referred to as blackhats, these hackers pursue forbidden knowledge. While often lured by the thrills offered by subversion and transgression alone, their acts also serve pedagogical purposes, and many have emerged from these illegal, underground into the realm of respected security research. Their hands-on experiences locating vulnerabilities and sleuthing systems are easily transferrable into efforts to fortify-rather than penetrate-technical systems. Predictably, the establishment of a profitable security industry is seen by some underground hackers as a threat to their autonomy: Some critics deride their fellow hackers for selling out to the man.[40] A much larger number don’t have a problem with the aim of securitization per se, but nevertheless chastise those attracted to the field by lucrative salaries rather than a passionate allegiance to quality. In one piece declaring the death of the hacker underground, a hacker bemoans: “unfortunately, fewer and fewer people are willing, or indeed capable of following this path, of pursuing that ever-unattainable goal of technical perfection. Instead, the current trend is to pursue the lowest common denominator, to do the least amount of work to gain the most fame, respect or money.”[41]
A major, and perhaps unsurprising motivator of hacker politicization comes in the wake of state intervention. The most potent periods of hacker politicization (at least in the American context) are undoubtedly those following arrests of underground hackers like Craig Neidorf[42] or Kevin Mitnick.[43] The criminalization of software can also do the trick; hacker-cryptopapher Phil Zimmerman broke numerous munitions and intellectual property laws when he released PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) encryption to the world-a fact governments did not fail to notice or act upon.[44] But this act of civil disobedience helped engender the now firmly-established hacker notion that software deserves free speech protections.[45]
In many such instances, the pushback against criminalization spills beyond hacker concerns, engaging questions of civil liberties more generally. Activists outside the hacker discipline are inevitably drawn in, and the political language deployed by them results in a sort of positive feedback loop for the hackers initially activated. We saw this precise pattern with the release and attempted suppression of DeCSS, a short program which could be used to circumvent copy and regional access controls on DVDs. In the United States, hackers who shared or published this code were sued under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, and its author was subsequently arrested in Norway. State criminalization led to a surge of protest activity among hackers across Europe and North America as they insisted upon free speech rights to write and release code undisputality cementing the association between free speech and code. As alliances were forged with civil liberties groups, lawyers, and librarians, what is now popularly known as the “digital rights movement” was more fully constituted.[46]
ENDNOTES
1. Levy, Steven Hackers. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, 2010, p. 10
2. DiSalvo, Carl and Melissa Gregg. “The Trouble With White Hats.” The New Inquiry, November 21, 2013.
3. Beyer, Jessica L. Expect Us: Online Communities and Political Mobilization. Oxford_; New York: Oxford University Press, 2014; Jordan, Tim, and Paul Taylor. Hacktivism and Cyberwars: Rebels with a Cause?. Routledge, 2004; Coleman, Gabriella. Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous. London_; Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2014; Sauter, Molly. The Coming Swarm: DDOS Actions, Hacktivism, and Civil Disobedience on the Internet. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
4. Alper, Meryl. “‘Can Our Kids Hack It With Computers?’ Constructing Youth Hackers in Family Computing Magazines.” International Journal of Communication. N, no. 8 (2014): 673-98.
5. For a history of phone phreaking see Lapsley, Phil. Exploding the Phone: The Untold Story of the Teenagers and Outlaws Who Hacked Ma Bell, 2013; for a history of the first coordinate state crackdowns against the American black hats see Sterling, Bruce. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier. New York: Bantam Books, 1992. The history of the intersection between hacking and cryptography has been written by Greenberg, Andy. This Machine Kills Secrets: How WikiLeakers, Cypherpunks, and Hacktivists Aim to Free the World’s Information. New York: Dutton Adult, 2012.Finally the classic account on the birth of university based hacking and early hardware hacking, see Steven Levy, ibid. For academic accounts also see: Jordan, Tim, and Paul Taylor. Hacktivism and Cyberwars: Rebels with a Cause?. Routledge, 2004; Thomas, Douglas. Hacker Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002; Wark, McKenzie. A Hacker Manifesto. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004; Kelty, Christopher M. Two Bits: The Cultural Significance of Free Software. Durham: Duke University Press, 2008; and Coleman, Gabriella. Coding Freedom: The Ethics and Aesthetics of Hacking. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.
6. Coleman, Gabriella. “The Hacker Conference: A Ritual Condensation and Celebration of a Lifeworld.” Anthropological Quarterly 83, no. 1 (2010): 47-72.
7. Borsook, Paulina. Cyberselfish: A Critical Romp through the Terribly Libertarian Culture of High Tech. PublicAffairs, 2000.
8. This is one but many examples where civil liberties is equated with libertarians but I feel like a jerk calling people out: Schulte, Stephanie, and Bret Schulte. “Muckraking in the Digital Age: Hacker Journalism and Cyber Activism in Legacy Media.” NMEDIAC, The Journal Of New Media And Culture 9, no. 1 (February 25, 2014).
9. Turner, Fred. From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
10. Barbrook, R, and A Cameron. “The California Ideology.” Science as Culture, no. 26 (1996): 44-72.
11. Marwick, Alice E. Status Update: Celebrity, Publicity, and Branding in the Social Media Age. Yale University Press, 2013 and Morozov, Evgeny. To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism. PublicAffairs, 2013.
12. Jordan, Tim. Hacking: Digital Media and Technological Determinism. Cambridge, UK; Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2008; Coleman, Gabriella, and Alex Golub. “Hacker Practice.” Anthropological Theory 8, no. 3 (2008): 255-77.
13. Lapsley, Ibid.
14. Berry, David. Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source. London: Pluto Press, 2008.
15. Greenberg, ibid.
16. Sennett, Richard. The Craftsman. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.
17. Hannemyr, Gisle. “Technology and Pleasure: Considering Hacking Constructive.” First Monday 4, no. 2 (February 1, 1999).
18. For an in-depth account of how these spaces function pedagogically, Schrock, Andrew Richard. “‘Education in Disguise’: Culture of a Hacker and Maker Space.” InterActions: UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies 10, no. 1 (January 1, 2014).
19. O’Neil, Mathieu. Cyberchiefs: Autonomy and Authority in Online Tribes. London; New York: New York: Pluto Press, 2009; Coleman, Gabriella. Coding Freedom: The Ethics and Aesthetics of Hacking. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.
20. Montfort, Nick. “Obfuscated Code.” In Software Studies a Lexicon, edited by Matthew Fuller. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008.
21. See “Codes of Value” section in Coleman, ibid; and also Goriunova, Olga, ed. Fun and Software: Exploring Pleasure, Paradox and Pain in Computing. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
22. Orr, Julian E. Talking about Machines: An Ethnography of a Modern Job. Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1996.
23. See, for example, Takhteyev, Yuri. Coding Places: Software Practice in a South American City. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2012; and Chan, Anita Say. Networking Peripheries: Technological Futures and the Myth of Digital Universalism. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2014.
24. Sewell Jr., William H. Logics of History: Social Theory and Social Transformation. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 2005.
25. Wark, ibid.
26. Delfanti, Alessandro and Johan Soderberg. “Hacking Hacked! The Life Cycles of Digital Innovation.” Science, Technology and Human Values, Forthcoming.
27. Tate, Ryan. “Google Couldn’t Kill 20 Percent Time Even If It Wanted To.” Wired, August 21, 2013.
28. Lindtner, Silvia, Li, David. “Created in China.” Interactions Interactions 19, no. 6 (2012): 18.
29. [LEFT BLANK] ****
30. Kelty, ibid.
31. Wark, ibid.
32. Polletta, F. “‘Free Spaces’ in Collective Action.” Theory and Society 28, no. 1 (1999): 1-38.
33. Bazzichelli, Tatiana. Networked Disruption: Rethinking Oppositions in Art, Hacktivism and the Business of Social Networking. Aarhus N, Denmark: Aarhus Universitet Multimedieuddannelsen, 2013.
34. Maxigas. “Hacklabs and Hackerspaces – Tracing Two Genealogies.” Journal of Peer Production, no. 2. Accessed October 2, 2014.
35. Kubitschko, Sebastian. “Hacking Authority.” edited by Craig Calhoun and Richard Sennett. New York: NYU Press, Forthcoming.
36. Coleman, Gabriella. Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous. London; Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2014.
37. Burkart, Patrick. Pirate Politics: The New Information Policy Contests. The MIT Press, 2014.
38. Coleman, Gabriella, and Mako Hill. “How Free Became Open and Everything Else Under the Sun.” MC Journal 7, no. 3 (July 2004).
39. Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire. New York: Penguin Books, 2005.
40. Anonymous. “Lines in the Sand: Which Side Are You On in the Hacker Class War.” Phrack Inc. 0x0e, no. 0x44 (April 2012).
41. Anonymous. “The Underground Myth.” Phrack Inc. 0x0c, no. 0x41 (November 2008).
42. Sterling, Ibid.
43. Thomas, Ibid.
44. Levy, Steven. Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government Saving Privacy in the Digital Age. 1st edition. London: Penguin Books, 2001.
45. Coleman, Gabriella. “Code Is Speech: Legal Tinkering, Expertise, and Protest among Free and Open Source Software Developers.” Cultural Anthropology 24, no. 3 (November 2, 2012): 420-54.
“Hacking, across its various manifestations, can be seen as a site where craft and craftiness converge.”
The following is a draft of an essay, eventually for publication as part of the Digital Keywords project (Ben Peters, ed). This and other drafts will be circulated on Culture Digitally, and we invite anyone to provide comment, criticism, or suggestion in the comment space below. We ask that you please do honor that it is being offered in draft form — both in your comments, which we hope will be constructive in tone, and in any use of the document: you may share the link to this essay as widely as you like, but please do not quote from this draft without the author’s permission. (TLG)
Hackers — Gabriella Coleman, McGill University
The Culture vs. the Cultures of Hacking
In the 1950s a small group of MIT-based computer enthusiasts, many of them model train builders/tinkerers, adopted the term “hacker” to differentiate their freewheeling attitude from those of their peers. While most MIT engineers relied on convention to deliver proven results, hackers courted contingency, disregarding norms or rules they thought likely to stifle creative invention. These hackers, like the engineers they distinguished themselves from, were primarily students, but a handful of outsiders, some of them pre-teens, were also deemed to possess the desire and intellectual chops required to hack and adopted into the informal club; In the eyes of this group, hackers re-purposed tools in the service of beauty and utility while those students “who insisted on studying for courses”[1] were considered “tools” themselves.
Since this coinage sixty years ago, the range of activity wedded to the term “hacking” has expanded exponentially. Bloggers share tips about “life hacks” (tricks for managing time or overcoming the challenges of everyday life); corporations, governments, and NGOs host “hackathon” coding sprints[2]; and the “hacktivist”, once a marginal political actor, now lies at the center of geopolitical life.[3] Since the early 1980s, the hacker archetype has also become a staple of our mass media diet. Rarely does a day pass without an article detailing a massive security breach at the hands of shadowy hackers, who have ransacked corporate servers to pilfer personal and lucrative data. Alongside these newspaper headlines, hackers often feature prominently in popular film, magazines, literature, and TV.[4]
Despite this pervasiveness, academic books on the subject of hacking are scant. To date the most substantive historical accounts have been penned by journalists, while academics have written a handful of sociological, anthropological and philosophical books -typically with a media studies orientation.[5] Surveying the popular, journalistic, and academic material on hackers, it is clear that few words in the English language evoke such a bundle of simultaneously negative and positive-even sexy-connotations: mysterious, criminal, impulsive, brilliant, chauvinistic, white knight, digital robin hood, young, white, male, politically naïve, libertarian, wizardly, entitled, brilliant, skilled, mystical, monastic, creepy, creative, obsessive, methodological, quirky, a-social, pathological.
Some of these associations carry with them a kernel of truth, especially in North America and Europe: conferences are populated by seas of mostly white men; their professionalizable skills, which encompass the distinct technical arts of programming, security research, hardware building, and system/network administration, land them mostly in a middle class or higher tax bracket (they are among the few professionals who can scramble up corporate ladders without a college degree); and their much vaunted libertarianism does, indeed, thrive in particular regions like Silicon Valley, the global start-up capital of the world, and select projects like the cryptocurrency Bitcoin.
Yet many other popular and entrenched ideas about hacking are more fable than reality. Maxigas. “Hacklabs and Hackerspaces – Tracing Two Genealogies.” Journal of Peer Production, no. 2. Accessed October 2, 2014.
Montfort, Nick. “Obfuscated Code.” In Software Studies a Lexicon, edited by Matthew Fuller. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008.
Morozov, Evgeny. To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism. PublicAffairs, 2013.
O’Neil, Mathieu. Cyberchiefs: Autonomy and Authority in Online Tribes. London_; New York_: New York: Pluto Press, 2009.
Orr, Julian E. Talking about Machines: An Ethnography of a Modern Job. Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1996.
Polletta, F. “‘Free Spaces’ in Collective Action.” Theory and Society 28, no. 1 (1999): 1-38.
Postigo, Hector. The Digital Rights Movement: The Role of Technology in Subverting Digital Copyright. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2012.
Sauter, Molly. The Coming Swarm: DDOS Actions, Hacktivism, and Civil Disobedience on the Internet. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
Schrock, Andrew Richard. “‘Education in Disguise’: Culture of a Hacker and Maker Space.” InterActions: UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies 10, no. 1 (January 1, 2014). http://escholarship.org/uc/item/0js1n1qg.
Schulte, Stephanie, and Bret Schulte. “Muckraking in the Digital Age: Hacker Journalism and Cyber Activism in Legacy Media.” NMEDIAC, The Journal Of New Media And Culture 9, no. 1 (February 25, 2014).
Sennett, Richard. The Craftsman. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.
Sewell Jr., William H. Logics of History: Social Theory and Social Transformation. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 2005.
Sterling, Bruce. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier. New York: Bantam Books, 1992.
Takhteyev, Yuri. Coding Places: Software Practice in a South American City. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2012.
Tate, Ryan. “Google Couldn’t Kill 20 Percent Time Even If It Wanted To.” Wired, August 21, 2013.
Thomas, Douglas. Hacker Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.
Turner, Fred. From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
Wark, McKenzie. A Hacker Manifesto. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
Android 5.0 Lollipop ROM for Galaxy Note 2! [CM12]
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How to Root Samsung Galaxy Note 2 GT-N7100 GT-N7105 T-Mobile Galaxy Note 2 SGH-T889 AT&T Galaxy Note 2 SGH-I317 Canadian Galaxy Note 2 SGH-I317 or SGH-T889 SGH-I317M or SGH-T889V
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Here’s how to root your Galaxy Note 2. (If you ended up on this page to root your Galaxy Note 3, see How To Root Galaxy Note 3 instead.)
Verified to work on the following Galaxy Note 2:
International Galaxy Note 2 GT-N7100 International Galaxy Note 2 GT-N7105 T-Mobile Galaxy Note 2 SGH-T889 AT&T Galaxy Note 2 SGH-I317 Canadian Galaxy Note 2 with model number starting with SGH-I317 or SGH-T889 such as SGH-
This root method works regard
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For those of you who want to root Sprint Galaxy Note 2 SPH-L900, you can follow this root tutorial as it will show you how to install TWRP custom recovery and also root your Sprint Note 2. (If you followed the original root guide, you can follow Steps 4-11 in this guide to re-install TWRP as the CWM Recovery you installed is not compatible with Sprint Galaxy Note 2.)
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| Editing by Rajesh Sunuwar |
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Option 2: Unlock computer in Safe Mode - without password disk.
Boot your computer in Safe Mode so that you can login to Windows as the built-in Administrator account. Then reset password for your locked account.
Step 1: Start or restart your computer. Instantly press and hold F8 to enter Advanced Boot Options. Then choose Safe Mode to start.
Step 3: Change or remove your forgotten password in Control Panel.
Tips: The built-in administrator was created while Windows installation, and it’s disabled by default. So you need to enable the built-in Administrator account manually. If you did not enable it then you will never access it.
Option 3: reset computer password with Windows installation disk.
A Windows installation disk not only can be used to install or reinstall system, but also can be used to repair system and reset Windows password. But this method is a little tricky especially for we normal computer users. Because it will require you to execute command lines in Command Prompt. If you really want to have a try to unlock your computer with installation disk, for detailed steps see how to reset Windows 7 forgotten admin password with installation CD.
Option 4: Unlock computer with specialized software.
When forgot password to your computer and having no available disk and the built-in admin is also disabled, then you need to use a specialized software to unlock your computer. And Windows Password Refixer is just what you want.
Windows Password Refixer reset/remove computer password with 4 steps:
Step 1: Download and installation.
As your computer is locked, you need to find another accessible computer to download and install the Windows Password Refixer.
Step 2: Create a bootable password reset disk.
Run Windows Password Refixer. Insert a USB or CD/DVD flash drive. Follow its instruction to burn the software into the flash drive so that you can get a bootable password reset disk.
Connect the bootable password reset disk to your locked computer. Start or restart the computer and set it to boot from the USB or CD/DVD.
Refer to: How to Boot Your Computer from a USB Drive and How to Boot computer from CD or DVD.
Step 4: Unlock computer password.
After your locked computer boots up from the bootable password reset disk. Windows Password Refixer program displays. On the screen select your Windows system and the user account whose password you forgot. Then click Reset Password button to unlock it. Your password will be removed and then you can get into your computer without password.
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How to Fix Google Play Store Errors
Error 491 is one of the most common errors related to the Google Play Store on Android. The error is usually triggered when the user is downloading an app or game from the Google Play Store. Fortunately the error is not much complicated and can be fixed easily without much effort.
Check : Scariest Games on the Google Play Store
How to Fix Google Play Error 491 on Android?
The main problem you will experience after Google play error 491 is that you will be unable to download or update any app. Here are a few methods by which you can fix the Google Play Store Error 491. All the fixes below are mentioned in an ascending order as you might have to try them one after another, incase the first method is not able to fix the Google Play Error 491.
Must Read: How to Fix Virtial Box DLL Errors Windows 8, 8.1, 7, XP, Vista
Method 1: Reboot your Phone
The most common method to fix the Google Play Store Error 491 is to reboot the android device. This methods fixes the error in most cases, however if this couldn’t fix the error in your case, please follow the next method.
Method 2: Clear Cache for Google Play Store and Google Play Services
The second most common method to fix the Google Play Error 491 is to clear caches for Google Play Store and Google Play Services.
Step 1: Go to Apps (Applications) in your Settings and swipe to find ‘All’ of your apps. Scroll down to Google Services
Method 3: Delete and re-add your Google account
The third most common fix for the Google Play Error 491 is to remove your Google Account, reboot your phone and then Re add your Google account once again.
Step 1: Go to “Settings” > “Accounts” > “Google” > Select “Your Account”
Step 2: Go to “Menu” and Select “Remove Account”
Method 4: Wipe Cache
You should only try this method as a last resort if all the above methods fail to fix the Google Play Error 491. This method requires that you can go into a recovery mode like Clockworkmod Recovery.
Reboot into recovery
Wipe cache partition
Go to Advanced >> Wipe Dalvik Cache
Now go back and Reboot system
Rerun Google Play Store and update or install your app.
How to Fix Google Play Error 498 on Android?
Another common error that occurs while downloading apps in the Google Play Store is the error 498. As you are downloading apps or games from the Google Market you get the message “An error 498 has occurred while communicating with the server.
You will get Error 498 in play store if you try to download apps that are larger in size then your Device’s Cache partition. For example, if you want to download an app or game of 50 MB and your phone’s cache partition is 40 MB, then you will see the Google Play Store error 498. Now it’s time to fix this error. Let’s know how to fix error 498 on Google play store.
Also Read: How to Fix Blue Screen Error In Windows
Method 1: Clear Cache of Google Play Store
Cache is the possible problem. So you need to clear cache.
Go to Settings > Applications Manager > Google Play Store on your Android device.
Click on Force Stop to stop the application.
July 22, 2015 by suresh 2 Comments
Google play store must be a reason why Android OS is among top of the list as compared to other OS in market. Like all other applications Google Play store also causes some errors. Though these errors are very rare but still they might cause panic in users. Not all of these errors are that serious, but some are temporary and are caused by recent activities of Play store. These errors can be solved by little patience. In this article we are going to tell you about some major and common Google play errors and How to fix Google Play Store Error.
Error 491 is one of the most common errors related to the Google Play Store on Android. The error is usually triggered when the user is downloading an app or game from the Google Play Store. Fortunately the error is not much complicated and can be fixed easily without much effort.
Check : Scariest Games on the Google Play Store
How to Fix Google Play Error 491 on Android?
The main problem you will experience after Google play error 491 is that you will be unable to download or update any app. Here are a few methods by which you can fix the Google Play Store Error 491. All the fixes below are mentioned in an ascending order as you might have to try them one after another, incase the first method is not able to fix the Google Play Error 491.
Must Read: How to Fix Virtial Box DLL Errors Windows 8, 8.1, 7, XP, Vista
Method 1: Reboot your Phone
The most common method to fix the Google Play Store Error 491 is to reboot the android device. This methods fixes the error in most cases, however if this couldn’t fix the error in your case, please follow the next method.
Method 2: Clear Cache for Google Play Store and Google Play Services
The second most common method to fix the Google Play Error 491 is to clear caches for Google Play Store and Google Play Services.
Step 1: Go to Apps (Applications) in your Settings and swipe to find ‘All’ of your apps. Scroll down to Google Services
Step 2: Then click force stop and then select “Clear Data & Clear Cache” to remove all the data regarding Google Play Store.
That’s it, now reboot your phone and the Google Play Error 491 should be fixed.
Method 3: Delete and re-add your Google account
The third most common fix for the Google Play Error 491 is to remove your Google Account, reboot your phone and then Re add your Google account once again.
Step 1: Go to “Settings” > “Accounts” > “Google” > Select “Your Account”
Step 2: Go to “Menu” and Select “Remove Account”
Step 3: Reboot the your device. As soon as your phone is done rebooting head back to where you deleted the Google account and re-add it.
Step 4: Done! Hope everyone solved the problem through the instructions. Now you can download any game or app from the Google Play Store without facing any errors.
Method 4: Wipe Cache
You should only try this method as a last resort if all the above methods fail to fix the Google Play Error 491. This method requires that you can go into a recovery mode like Clockworkmod Recovery.
Reboot into recovery
Wipe cache partition
Go to Advanced >> Wipe Dalvik Cache
Now go back and Reboot system
Rerun Google Play Store and update or install your app.
How to Fix Google Play Error 498 on Android?
Another common error that occurs while downloading apps in the Google Play Store is the error 498. As you are downloading apps or games from the Google Market you get the message “An error 498 has occurred while communicating with the server.
You will get Error 498 in play store if you try to download apps that are larger in size then your Device’s Cache partition. For example, if you want to download an app or game of 50 MB and your phone’s cache partition is 40 MB, then you will see the Google Play Store error 498. Now it’s time to fix this error. Let’s know how to fix error 498 on Google play store.
Also Read: How to Fix Blue Screen Error In Windows
Method
Method 4: Use Cache Fixer App (If Your Device is Rooted)
If your Android device is rooted, then the best and a guaranteed way to fix error 498 in Google Play Store is to download and install Cache Fixer app. It will instantly clear out the cache partition in your Android device and fix the issue.
Download the Cache Fixer app on your smartphone and use the app to instantly fix the error 498 issue.
If you are not an advanced Android user, then you have to be extra careful while using this feature. To fix the Google Play Store error 498, you can boot in to recovery mode and clear the Dalvik cache on your device. After you have cleared the dalvik cache, you will have to reboot your smartphone and it will take longer than usual.
To boot into recovery mode, you will have to look up on Google. The method is different for different devices so search for the method to boot into recovery for your smartphone’s model.
Boot in to Recovery mode.
Select Wipe Cache Partition. (Use Volume keys to navigate and Power key to select)
Next, go to Advanced > Wipe Dalvik Cache.
Finally, select “Reboot System Now” to reboot your Android device.
That’s it… Hope this tutorial will definitely helps you to get rid of this error and you can again download your favourite app from play store just like before on your Android device. If you have any doubts regarding this comment below.
Samsung Galaxy S6 vs Samsung Galaxy Note 4
Samsung Galaxy S6 vs Samsung Galaxy Note 4: which is better?Samsung vs Samsung, flagship vs flagship. This time, it's personal
 |
| Editing by Rajesh Sunuwar |
Unless you want a phone with a bendy front, the SamsungGalaxy S6andNote 4are your best bets from Samsung for 2015, but is Samsung’s giant really worth the extra pocket bother?The newer Samsung Galaxy S6 comes with a few nifty extras, as well as the new-style Samsung phone design. And it has finally, mercifully, rid itself of all that naff crinkled plastic.But there can only be one winner when you have £500-odd to spend on a phone and just one spare pocket to fill. Bring on round one:
Glass Vs Plastic
The Galaxy Note 4 and Galaxy S6 have both come a long way from past Galaxy flagships, all of which felt about as expensive as a pack of crisps.The Note 4 was Samsung’s first step to upping its game. The game may have been upped but the Note 4 is still no oil painting - despite some cool metal highlights, the back is still that tacky leather-effect plastic that has prompted a few disgusted looks over the past couple of years.Rejoice, then, that the Samsung Galaxy S6 is a fully reformed character. It's rocking a metal unibody with a Gorilla Glass back. There's no nasty plastic on show to cheapen the expensive vibe. It’s also an awful lot thinner - just 6.8mm thick compared to the Note 4's now chunky-seeming 8.5mm.There are plenty of excuses for this, though. The Note 4 has a styluslodged in its body: the S Pen digitiser stylus that lets you use the giganto-phone as a sort of mini sketchpad. It also has a bigger battery and, let’s face it, 8.5mm isn’t really chunky.That's all well and good but the Galaxy S6 is easily the best-looking smartphone the company has ever made. It feels lovely in the hand and you'll be proud to show it off.
Winner:Samsung Galaxy S6QHD all the Way
Here’s where the Note 4 pulls ahead of the Galaxy S6 - if you prefer bigger sceens. Its 5.7-inch display is quite a bit bigger than the S6’s 5.1-inch one.As both have QHD resolution screens, the S6 has a higher pixels per inch rating, but anyone claiming the Note 4 doesn’t have enough pixels to go around is talking nonsense. It positively steamrolls the iPhone 6 Plus, and no-one calls that phone blocky.Both phones use a Super AMOLED display and the light-up pixels get you better contrast than any LCD phone, ever. They’re both pretty stunning - and, as usual, Samsung offers a whole bunch of custom modes ranging from one with super-saturated colours to another that might look a bit glum to some eyes, but is actually super-accurate. Our eyes are just used to jazzed-up colours these days.Neither phone gets you the fancy curved edges of theNote EdgeorGalaxy S6 Edge, but then you also don’t have to pay the premium to get those bonus show-off points.Both the Note 4 and Galaxy S6 have very good screens, so it's really going to come down to what you want to use the phone for. If you'rea bit of a Netflix-on-the-go fan, we’ll think you’ll appreciate the extra size and crispness of the Note 4, but if your hands prefer more comfortable, pocketable screens, then the S6 might be better for you.
Winner: drawAll eyes on aperture
You might be disappointed with the camera tech of both handsets on paper. Just like the Samsung Galaxy Note 4, the Galaxy S6 uses a 16-megapixel sensor - but phone photography is about more than just megapixellage.Both handsets come with optical image stabilisation, meaning they're both pretty good in low-light situations, but the S6 may just have the edge thanks to its wider lens aperture, with f/1.9 to the Note 4’s f/2.3.This means that the hole in the lens through which light reaches thecamera sensor is bigger. A bigger hole means more captured light, which should result in better, more detailed low-light photos - which is exactly what we found in our review. It's a fantastic camera - easy and fast to work with a really good dynamic range to boot.The Note 4's camera is good but the S6's is better. In fact, it's one ofthe best phone cameras out there. More obvious upgrades have been made around the front, with the ‘selfie’ camera. Where the Galaxy Note 4 has a 3.7-megapixel sensor, the Galaxy S6 uses a 5-megapixel one. All the better for capturing those bags under your eyes.
Features: Older, better?
Samsung is pretty much the grand emperor of phone features, to the extent that most people only use a pretty small wedge of them. It didn’t really need to add much to the Galaxy S6: there really wasn’tthat much to add.Both models have ac Wi-Fi, NFC, 4G, GPS, Bluetooth 4.1, an IR transmitter, and that’s just the ordinary stuff. Both also have a fingerprint scanner on the front and a heart-rate sensor on the back.The Galaxy S6's fingerprint scanner is superior to that found on all previous Samsungs however, and no longer requires an annoying swipe to work. Instead, it handles in a similar fashion to the iPhone 6's Touch ID home button, which is able to scan your digits with a simple, more convenient tap.The Samsung Galaxy Note 4 does have a few bits the Galaxy S6 lacks, though.First, there’s the S Pen. This is a pressure-sensitive stylus that is the Note series’ USP. Even more important to some is the microSD slot.Where the Galaxy Note 4 has 32GB of internal memory and a card slot, the Galaxy S6 has non-expandable memory but either 32GB, 64GB or 128GB of internal storage. It’s very iPhone-like in this respect, and sure to get plenty of Samsung fans annoyed.The S6 also lacks a removable battery, which was a big selling point in the past for Android power users.
Winner: Samsung Galaxy Note 4
Performance: Generation gap
The love affair between Samsung and Qualcomm is over. For years Samsung has used Qualcomm Snapdragon processors, but not in the Galaxy S6. Instead, it uses a chipset from Samsung’s own Exynos line.If we’re to believe the rumours, it’s because the rival Snapdragon 810 overheated during Samsung’s testing. 2014’s Note 4 uses a Snapdragon 805, which is part of the generation before the Snapdragon 810.Politics aside, there are some pretty neat technical improvements inthe Galaxy S6’s Exynos CPU. First, it has eight cores instead of four. It’s also a 64-bit CPU while the Snapdragon 805 is 32-bit, plus it packs 3GB of RAM, resulting in some insane Geekbench 3 scores that even outstrip some laptops. It's the most powerful phone processor we've ever tried, and it manages to keep temperatures down while zipping through the tasks we set it. It may even be more efficient too. The Exynos chipset is made usingtransistors just 14 nanometers across while the Snapdragon 805 uses 20-nanometer transistors. Without wanting to get too Honey I Shrunk My CPU on you, the smaller transistors a CPU uses, the moreefficient is can be.That means you can get a day and a half of use from the S6 on a fullcharge. What's more, when you do come to juice back up, it chargessuper fast - about 70% in half an hour. Zippy. The Note 4 manages just over a day from a full charge, but only manages to pack 50% into thirty minutes of charging. Talk about slow. Winner: Samsung Galaxy S6The winnerThe Galaxy S6 isn't just a specs upgrade: it’s a step change for Samsung. The company has really thought about what its customers actually want on this device - so it's hello to a snazzy new look and goodbye to a lot of the annoying TouchWiz bloatware that blights older Samsung phones.Sure, power users will lament the loss of expandable memory and a removable battery, and if you're looking for a bigger device and more control over your components, then the 2K Note 4 could be a better bet. But for most people out there, the S6 will be the handset for you.
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